[ **up: [[Rodents]] | [[Muridae (Family)]] | [[Mus (Genus)]]** ] --- # African pygmy mouse (*Mus minutoides*) ![[Illustration of Mus minutoides. From Happold (ed.), 'Mammals of Africa, Vol. 3' (Bloosmbury, 2013), p. 485. Copyrighted, DO NOT UPLOAD..png]] [^1] The African pygmy mouse is one of the smallest [[Rodents]] in the world.[^2] Widespread in [[sub-Saharan]] [[Africa]], it is also apparently kept as a pet.[^3] --- ## Taxonomy *Mus minutoides* A. Smith, 1834.[^4] - **[[Life (Biology)]]** - **[[Eukaryotes|Eukaryota (Domain)]]** - [[Animals|Animalia (Kingdom)]] - [[Chordates|Chordata (Phylum)]] - [[Mammals|Mammalia (Class)]] - [[Rodents|Rodentia (Order)]] - [[Muridae (Family)]] - *[[Mus (Genus)]]* - *[[African pygmy mouse|Mus minutoides]]* <small>AFRICAN PYGMY MOUSE</small> There are four subspecies: - *M. m. minutoides*.[^5] - *M. m. umbratus* (Thomas, 1910).[^6] - *M. m. marica* (Thomas, 1910).[^7] - *M. m. orangiae* (Roberts, 1926).[^8] Or—possibly—three: - *M. m. minutoides*.[^9] - *M. m. umbratus*.[^10] - *M. m. marica.[^11]* --- ## Description *Mus minutoides* are “among the smallest” of the [[Muridae (Family)|murids]].[^12] In fact, the only murid smaller than *Mus minutoides* is the [[chestnut climbing mouse]]—which is “equally small”.[^13] Furry.[^14] They have “pure white under parts”.[^15] > The upper parts of the body are brownish-buff. The brownish colour is imparted to the pelage by the presence of black-tipped hairs which become fewer on the flanks, which are orange-buffy in colour. The border between the colour of the flanks and the white of the under parts is sharply defined. The tail is brown above and buffy below, the ears brownish, the hands and feet buffy-white.[^16] > Very small mouse with soft, shiny pelage. Dorsal pelage variable shades of brownish-buff to brownish-orange; hairs slate-grey at base with black tip. Flanks buffy-orange. Ventral pelage (including chin) pure white. Clear delineation between colour of flanks and ventral pelage. Head with pointed nose and long vibrissae. Ears brownish, moderately sized and rounded. Limbs short. Feet white with well-developed digits; four digits on forefoot; five digits on hindfoot. Digits 2–4 elongated. All digits with well-developed claws. Tail short (ca. 75% of HB), brownish above, paler below. Nipples: 3 + 2 = 10.[^17] ![[Illustration of Mus minutoides. From Happold (ed.), 'Mammals of Africa, Vol. 3' (Bloosmbury, 2013), p. 473. Copyrighted, DO NOT UPLOAD..png|500]] [^18] ### Body temperature > It is predicted that they have a body temperature of 34.8 °C (Webb & Skinner, 1995b).[^19] ### Genetics [[“Mus minutoides presents an extreme example of karyotypic diversity owing largely to Robertsonian fusion variation, but more unexpectedly to rare chromosomal changes involving the sex chromosomes.”]][^20] --- #### “Four Sexes”: Male (XY) + Female (XX, XX* & X\*Y) [[2025-0323. 'The pygmy mouse is characterized by a very high proportion of XY females.'|'The pygmy mouse is characterized by a very high proportion of XY females.']][^84 [[2025-0313. The African pygmy mouse displays two morphologically different X chromosomes.|The African pygmy mouse displays two 'morphologically different X chromosomes: the ancestral X and a shorter one designated as X*, feminizing the X*Y individuals.']][^21] [[2025-0313. The African pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides) is a rodent with naturally occurring sex reversal.|All 'males are XY, while females are of three types: XX, XX* or X*Y (the asterisk represents an unknown X-linked mutation preventing masculinisation of X*Y embryos). X*Y females show typical female anatomy and, interestingly, have greater breeding performances.']][^22] [[2025-0313. In African Pygmy mice, all mice are XY, but there are three types of females with different sex chromosome complements.|'So while all males are XY, there are three types of females with different sex chromosome complements: XX, XX* and X*Y20; Sex determination is polygenic in this species.']][^23] It is a mutation of the X chromosome.[^24] --- [[“An additional feature of the XY female sex system is an anticipated biased sex-ratio since the XX and XY females are theoretically expected to produce 75 and 66 per cent female offspring, respectively.”]][^25] [[Mus minutoide XY females “may compensate for foetal loss through higher reproductive efficiency”|“Additionally X*Y females may compensate for foetal loss through higher reproductive efficiency, as is the case in Akodon azarae where X*Y females have both a longer reproductive lifespan and higher rates of preimplantation embryonic development compared to XX females (Espinosa & Vitullo 2001).”]][^26] --- ### Sexual dimorphism Not significant. Typical body measurements, and mass, of male and female African pygmy mice vary (within ranges) by millimetres.[^27] ### Female phenotypes [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, 'the three types of females cannot be told apart phenotypically.'|In the African pygmy mouse, 'the three types of females cannot be told apart phenotypically, they have a similar body mass and ano-genital distance, and all harbour typical ovarian structure, which suggest similar levels of circulating hormones.']][^28] #### No clear male preference for any particular phenotype [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, males do not appear to exhibit preference for one female genotype over another; however, this requires further study.|In the African pygmy mouse, males do not appear to exhibit preference for one female genotype over another; however, this requires further study.]][^29] --- ## Distribution ### Southern African subregion > They appear to occur in the Northern Cape, except in the northern part, the Western Cape, the Eastern Cape, the Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, eastern Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga, central and eastern Zimbabwe, and Mozambique south of the Zambezi River. Recorded from Swaziland and Lesotho.[^30] > Endemic to Africa. Zambezian Woodland BZ (eastern part), South-West Cape BZ and southern Somalia–Masai Bushland BZ. Also occurs at higher altitudes in Swaziland. Recorded in S and E South Africa, northwards through Swaziland and S Mozambique to Zimbabwe and Malawi. Two isolated records from NE Namibia (Matson & Blood 1994). Northern limit of the geographic range where it adjoins that of *M. musculoides* in eastern Africa is uncertain (shown by striped lines on map). Replaced by *M. indutus* in western part of Zambezian Woodland BZ.[^31] --- ## Habitat > They are typically found in rocky habitats, vlei and riverine associations, grasslands, including recently burnt grasslands, fallow lands, plantations and suburban areas.[^32] --- ## Habits ### Nocturnal, terrestrial > Pygmy mice are nocturnal and [[Terrestrial (Zoology)|terrestrial]].[^33] --- ### No evidence of spontaneous daily torpor > No evidence of [[Spontaneous daily torpor (Zoology)|spontaneous daily torpor]] has been found at low temperatures or when food availability is reduced (Downs & Perrin, 1996).[^34] ^ in captivity.[^35] --- ### Social, but not communal The African pygmy mouse is a [[2025-0313. The African pygmy mouse is a 'social species'.|'social species'.]][^36] They are not, however, communal.[^37] #### (Potentially) slow to form pair bonds [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, males do not appear to exhibit preference for one female genotype over another; however, this requires further study.|’Informal observations in our laboratory colony suggest that, in contrast with laboratory mice, pair formation could take several days/weeks (e.g. it often takes several days before a male and a female can be found sharing the same nest, suggesting that it takes a certain time before they accept each other).’]][^38] Pairs may forage together.[^39] #### Family burrows (when breeding) Their burrows are typically used by “only a pair or a family party”.[^40] > In soft ground they construct shallow burrows, but much more commonly use existing shelter under fallen logs, piles of debris or boulders, or in holes in termite mounds.[^41] > Construct spherical nests, under cover, from grass or other soft fibres in which young are born.[^42] #### Not attached to burrows (when not breeding) > They apparently forage singly at night and may not be closely tied to a single shelter, since an effective way of catching them is to lay a tarpaulin or sheets of corrugated iron on the ground, which they will use as a temporary diurnal shelter.[^43] > During the non-breeding season, shelters may be changed regularly.[^44] --- ### Self-grooming > Self-grooming commences at 10–11 days of age and continues through adulthood.[^45] --- ### Aggressive (in certain situations) African pygmy mice can be aggressive in certain situations; nevertheless, captive *Mus minutoides* are “dominated” by the “equally small” mice of the *[[Dendromus (Genus)]]*.[^46] ### Female behaviour [[2025-0313. In African Pygmy Mice, sex chromosome complement does not impact male mate preferences; however, it does influence aspects of female aggression and anxiety.|In African Pygmy Mice, sex chromosome complement does not impact male mate preferences; however, it does influence aspects of X*Y female aggression and anxiety.]][^47] #### Females will aggressively defend their own spaces and their young African pygmy mice can be aggressive in certain situations. For example, “[[2025-0320. Mus minutoides 'are aggressive towards each other in captivity, males who are introduced to established females in cages being attacked. On the other hand, when females are introduced to established males they are accepted freely.'|males who are introduced to established females in cages]]” will be attacked by the female.[^48] On the other hand, “[[2025-0320. Mus minutoides 'are aggressive towards each other in captivity, males who are introduced to established females in cages being attacked. On the other hand, when females are introduced to established males they are accepted freely.'|when females are introduced to established males they are accepted freely]]”.[^49] > Females aggressively defend their nests when young are present.[^50] ##### X\*Y female aggression X\*Y females are more aggressive than the other two types.[^51] [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, XY females 'show an enhanced aggressiveness, and an anxiogenic response to novelty and exploratory behaviour similar to those of males'.|In the African pygmy mouse, X*Y females 'show an enhanced aggressiveness, and an anxiogenic response to novelty and exploratory behaviour similar to those of males'.]][^52] (It is, however, possibly worth noting that the test was about their reaction to *male intruders*; the X*\Y females would attack sooner, and about three times as frequently.[^53]) #### Boldness ##### X\*Y female boldness X\*Y females were slightly more willing to explore, and perhaps less anxious in general.[^54] They were *not*, however, less anxious of the open field than other females.[^55] [[2025-0313. 'Reduced anxiety of XY females could influence breeding success by facilitating male-female interactions.'|'Reduced anxiety of X*Y females could influence breeding success by facilitating male-female interactions.']][^56] --- ### Territorial behaviour It is unknown whether African pygmy mice are territorial.[^57] Many female small mammals are.[^58] #### X\*Y females and territorial behaviour If female African pygmy mice *are* territorial, then “the greater aggressiveness and exploratory behaviour of X\*Y females could be advantageous to protect their offspring and provide adequate access to resources required for reproduction.”[^59] --- ## Food Omnivorous.[^60] > The main diet is grass seed, herbage and insects, including termites.[^61] > Wilson (1975) recorded the seeds of couch grass (Cynodon dactylon), bristle grass (Setaria sphacelata), and blue grass (Andropogon gayanus) in stomach contents in Zimbabwe. In the Drakensberg Rowe-Rowe (1986) recorded grass seeds in all eight stomachs examined, while 25% contained green plant material and 38% arthropods.[^62] > In contrast, specimens from the Karoo have a high herbage consumption and an analysis of 52 stomachs found that dietary composition was herbage 83.5 ± 3.3%, insects 8.8 ± 2.4% and seeds 7.6 ± 2.5%.[^63] > Herbage consumption was highest during February and March (95.2%; *n* = 14) and lowest during December and January (50%; n = 4). Insect consumption was highest in August/September and lowest in June/July. Seed consumption was uniformly low (Kerley, 1992b). Stomach sampling of 17 pygmy mice in Swaziland showed the following occurrence: foliage 82.3%, seeds 82.3% and arthropods 29.4% (Monadjem, 1997c).[^64] > Proportional contribution of food types in stomach contents: 44% vegetable material, 40% seeds, 16% arthropods (n = 17, Swaziland; Monadjem 1997b).[^65] --- ## Reproduction > Little information is available about reproduction in the wild.[^66] Surprisingly little known, considering how “abundant” they are.[^67] Probably peaks in the wet season (Nov–Feb), but “may continue throughout the year”.[^68] ### Courtship > Courtship involves grooming of the female by the male. He nuzzles her neck and face as she sits in a hunched position with her face averted. Attempts to copulate may be rejected at first by the female kicking with her hind feet, but otherwise she shows no signs of aggression.[^69] #### Potentially choosier males (re. mate choice) [[2025-0313. If African pygmy mice live 'live in social groups, aggressiveness could help achieving dominance and therefore a greater reproductive success' for XY females.|'As some embryos with a Y become females rather than males, a female biased sex-ratio is expected in natural populations. This could alter the strength and direction of competition for mates, as mating becomes more difficult for the sex in the majority. Such conditions could favour the evolution of sex-role reversal: females would benefit from being more aggressive and less anxious while competing for males and choosiness might evolve in males.']][^70] ### (Possibly) no fixed breeding season > Litters have been found in December (five) and January (four), and a gravid female with eight foetuses was taken in February in Zimbabwe (Smithers & Wilson, 1979). One pregnant female was collected in Lesotho during October with five foetuses (Lynch, 1994). Pregnant females have been collected in KwaZulu-Natal between November and June and the mean number of foetuses per pregnant female was 4.5 (range = 3 – 7; n = 4) (Taylor, 1998a).[^71] ### Gestation Gestation (in captivity) is 18–19 days.[^72] > The gestation period is 19 days. The female defends the nest by vocalising and biting from a few days before the young are born and while the litter is in the nest. The male occupies the nest with the female and her litter and takes part in its defence.[^73] ### Litters of approx. four young Mean litter size might be 4.5 or 4.[^74] > Pairs captured in KwaZulu-Natal bred freely (Willan & Meester, 1978). Litter size was 4.0 (range =1 – 7; n = 27) and birth mass about 0.8 g.[^75] > Mean interval between litters 22 days.[^76] #### Young > The altricial young are bright pink at birth and their eyes are closed. Their skin is translucent, the abdominal viscera visible through it. Pigmentation of the skin on the shoulders is noticeable by the third or fourth day and by the fifth day the whole of the head, back and tail is pigmented. By the ninth day a fine brownish-buff pelage appears on the upper parts of the body, extending onto the flanks, and sparse white hairs appear on the under parts. By day 14 they resemble the adults. The incisors erupt between day 7 and day 9, the lower incisors a day ahead of the upper, and the eyes open between day 12 and day 14. They are weaned by day 17. The first successful mating took place at about 42 days and the first birth at 62 days.[^77] > Young weaned Day 18.[^78] > Sexual maturity attained Day 42 (Willan & Meester 1978).[^79] > Survival rates are low and few individuals live to one year of age.[^80] --- ### X\*Y females produce significantly more offspring than XX and XX* females [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, ‘the three types of females cannot be told apart phenotypically.’|’However, [the three types of females’] reproductive performances differ: unexpectedly, X*Y females produce significantly more offspring than the XX and XX* females despite the meiotic issues expected in heterogametic oocytes and the loss of unviable YY embryos.’]][^81] This increase production occurs despite [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, 'the three types of females cannot be told apart phenotypically.'|’the meiotic issues expected in heterogametic oocytes and the loss of unviable YY embryos’]].[^82] Not only do X\*Y females produce [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, 'the three types of females cannot be told apart phenotypically.'|’bigger litters’]],[^83] but they also have an [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, 'the three types of females cannot be told apart phenotypically.'|’earlier breeding onset’]] and [[2025-0313. In the African pygmy mouse, 'the three types of females cannot be told apart phenotypically.'|’a higher breeding probability’]].[^84] Basically: [[2024-1229. In African pygmy mice, XY females have a higher reproductive output. This is thanks to having an earlier breeding onset, larger litters, and a greater chance of having at least one litter overall.|X*Y females have a higher reproductive output. This is thanks to having an earlier breeding onset, larger litters, and a greater chance of having at least one litter overall.]][^85] --- ## Predators, parasites and diseases > Preyed upon by several species of owls (Vernon 1972, Perrin 1982). Ectoparasites include 12 species of fleas, and three species of ticks (details in De Graaff 1981). Susceptible to plague in laboratory conditions.[^86] [^1]: Meredith Happold (illustrator), *[[Happold. 'Mammals of Africa. Volume 3_ Rodents, Hares and Rabbits', 2013.|Mammals of Africa, Vol. 3: Rodents, Hares and Rabbits]]*, ed. David Happold, (Bloosmbury: London, 2013), p. 485. Licenced: ==COPYRIGHTED. DO NOT UPLOAD.== [^2]: ‘African pygmy mouse’, *Wikipedia*, updated 24 December 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_pygmy_mouse. [^3]: ‘African pygmy mouse’, *Wikipedia*, updated 24 December 2024. [^4]: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (eds.), *[[Skinner & Chimimba. 'The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion', 2005.|The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion]]*, 3rd edn. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2005), p. 793. [^5]: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (eds.), *The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion*, p. 144. [^6]: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (eds.), *The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion*, p. 144. [^7]: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (eds.), *The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion*, p. 144. [^8]: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (eds.), *The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion*, p. 144. [^9]: A. 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