\[ **BT: [[society#major cultural components and institutions of human society]]** ] --- # kinship: laws and customs **Systems of relationship based upon marriage and descent.** ## kinship In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies.[^1] Anthropologist Robin Fox says that the study of kinship is the study of what humans do with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc.[^2] - see also: [[filial piety]] ## kinship-related laws and customs e.g. mate selection, sexual behaviour, marriage and divorce, legitimacy of children, etc. ### mate choice (dating, courtship, etc.) [[Freedom to choose one's own relationships without fear, shame, or secrecy, is critical for society as a collective.]][^3] [[Crooked coins were superstition-based coins left with foundlings, sweethearts, etc; it was hoped they would bring good fortune.]][^4] - see also: [[love tokens]] #### sexual behaviour ##### laws and customs of sexual behaviour [[Sex is never an entirely private business. What people feel and don't feel, do and don't do, is informed by all kinds of social mores and conventions created by law, medicine, religion, the media, etc.]][^5] [[Sex, for most people, is a key part of the individual's sense of place in the world (and their interactions with other people).]][^6] ###### sexual scripts [[Sexual scripts are unspoken social rules focused on sexual behaviour.]][^7] [[The dominant sexual script in Western cultures is both gendered and heteronormative, with men seen as the ‘initiators of sexual interactions while women are passive gatekeepers’.]][^8] ###### laws and customs of sexual behaviour throughout history [[Mencius's 'shi se xing ye' statement (appetite for food and sex is nature) belongs to a series of exchanges debating human nature and, most importantly, the nature of benevolence and rightness.]][^9] [[In imperial China, the ‘social and erotic expression of same-sex intimacy was generally confined to a continuum of behaviours that co-existed with heterosexual marriage, so long as such behaviours did not challenge existing social hierarchies’.]][^10] [[The concept of homosexuality, as a specific orientation or identity, was introduced to China in the 20th century via Western sexology discourse.]][^11] - see also: [[same-sex sexual behaviour]] ##### the whole-body nature of sexual behaviour [[Relative freedom from hormonal control, in regards to human sexual receptivity, is part of humanity’s ‘inheritance from pre-human ancestors’.]][^12] [[Accurately measuring human sexual behaviours is fraught with ethical and practical problems.]][^13] ###### aphrodisiacs [[Truffles have long been associated with sex.]][^14] ###### masturbation [[Asexual people, when masturbating, are likely to be experiencing non-directed desire (i.e. they aren't focusing on anyone in particular).]][^15] - ↬ [(FtM anon on reddit) I don’t know how to jerk off with my growing dick](https://www.reddit.com/r/ftm/comments/pxptkj/i_dont_know_how_to_jerk_off_with_my_growing_dick/) ###### same-sex sexual behaviour [[@fubroshi tweeted, ‘my hot and controversial take of the evening is that sometimes calling a bottom daddy is very hot’.]][^16] - see also: [[same-sex sexual behaviour]] ### marriage laws and customs - see: [[marriage laws and customs]] ### divorce laws and customs - see: [[divorce laws and customs]] ### child-rearing laws and customs #### legitimacy [[In Roman law, ‘mater semper certa est’ (lit. ‘the mother is always certain’) meant the mother of a child was conclusively established, from the moment of birth, by the mother’s role in the birth.]][^17] [[In Roman law, ‘pater semper incertus est’ (lit. ‘the father is always uncertain’) was the principle that paternity could never be entirely guaranteed.]][^18] #### sole-parent families [[There have always been sole-parent families and boys without resident male role models, and likely at similar quantities as today.]][^12] [[Fractured families have been common in Australia since white settlement in 1788.]][^12] #### milk kinship - see: [[milk kinship]] ### rules of residence #### matrilocality [[Matrilocal residence (matrilocality) is a societal system in which a married couple resides with or near the wife's parents.]][^19] [[During the Iron Age, societies in Britain may have been matrilocal. DNA evidence, studied in 2025, shows men moved to live with their wives' families.]][^20] [[Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra, ancestry and family line pass down the female line, along with land, house, and livestock. Husbands move into their wives' homes upon marriage. Decision-making is based upon principles of mutual responsibility.]][^21] - see also: - [[#matrifocal family]] - [[#matrilineal]] #### patrilocality [[Bride price payments are closely associated with patrilineal and patrilocal systems.]][^12] - see also: [[society#bridewealth (bride price)|bride price]] ### descent systems #### matrilineality [[Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra, ancestry and family line pass down the female line, along with land, house, and livestock. Husbands move into their wives' homes upon marriage. Decision-making is based upon principles of mutual responsibility.]][^22] [[The Khasi, of northeastern India, are a matrilineal society where the family’s youngest daughter (rather than the eldest) inherits her mother’s wealth and property.]][^23] [[Africa’s matrilineal societies go back more than 5,000 years]][^5] - see also: [[matriarchy]] #### patrilineality [[Bride price payments are closely associated with patrilineal and patrilocal systems.]][^12] - closely related: [[patriarchy]] - see also: [[society#bridewealth (bride price)|bride price]] ### resource control #### inheritance and succession ##### inheritance and succession in the contemporary world ###### the matrifocal family [[A matrifocal family is a family where mothers are the heads of the household. They are not women-centred so much as mother-centred.]][^24] [[Where matrifocal families are common as a social structure, marriage is less common.]][^25] [[A matrifocal family structure does not necessarily mean a matrifocal society. Households may be matrifocal while the broader social structure and social linkages are patrifocal.]][^26] [[During the Yuan dynasty, Kong Qi noted some families were practising gynarchy, i.e. family structures dominated by women (matrifocal, rather than matrilineal).]][^27] [[Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra, ancestry and family line pass down the female line, along with land, house, and livestock. Husbands move into their wives' homes upon marriage. Decision-making is based upon principles of mutual responsibility.]][^28] ##### inheritance and succession throughout history ###### inheritance and succession in medieval Europe [[Late medieval ‘Southwest German nobles practiced a highly restrictive marriage policy … Barely half of the sons and daughters born in the fifteenth century who survived to adulthood ever married.’]][^29] [[‘In the fifteenth century the majority of unmarried sons, as well as virtually all of the unmarried daughters, entered the church. Ecclesiastical careers were most common among the lower-ranking families …’]][^30] #### the family as a centre for the transmission of economic, religious, political, and other, powers and goods [[In China, family is considered the bedrock of society.]][^55] [[Family is the epicentre of Confucian ethics; self-improvement (‘xiushen’) must be pursued within the confines of the family.]][^56] [[‘Family is the metonym for belonging, not simply to the nation-state but to Chinese culture writ large.’]][^31] [[Wu Zetian was able to poison one son and depose the others in part thanks to an emphasis on filial piety and revered motherhood.]][^32] - see also: [[filial piety]] [[In Latin American culture, disobedience against the family goes against the 'nature' of things (the normal rules of behaviour); it is a malformation of the spirit.]][^13] #### the patrifocal family The general standard, globally. ### more complex kinship systems - ↬ [Kinship Module: Learn about Aboriginal Kinship systems](https://www.sydney.edu.au/about-us/vision-and-values/our-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-community/kinship-module.html) (University of Sydney) #### moiety [[A moiety is a ‘method of social division where a society is split into two complementary parts or “halves”, commonly known as moieties’.]][^33] [[Moieties are often exogamous (e.g. you marry out of your moiety) and share a common unilineal ancestry or descent (more often matrilineal than patrilineal).]][^31] ##### moiety system types > 1. **Exogamous and Endogamous Moieties**: Some societies have exogamous moieties, meaning that members of one moiety are required to marry someone from the other moiety. On the other hand, endogamous moieties require that members marry within their own moiety. > 2. **Patrilineal and Matrilineal Moieties**: In some societies, moiety membership is inherited through the father’s line (patrilineal), while in others it is inherited through the mother’s line (matrilineal). > 3. **Non-unilineal Moieties**: In some cultures, moiety membership isn’t strictly inherited along male or female lines. Instead, it might be flexible or dependent on factors such as birth order, choice, or other cultural rules. > 4. **Productive and Ceremonial Moieties**: In some societies, one moiety might be responsible for certain types of work (e.g. hunting, farming) while the other is responsible for ceremonies and religious functions. > 5. **Named and Unnamed Moieties**: Some societies have named moieties, often associated with certain animals, plants, or natural elements, while others don’t attach specific names to the moieties.[^34] --- ## kinship and social change e.g. kinship as an evolving social system [[Fractured families have been common in Australia since white settlement in 1788.]][^12] [[There have always been sole-parent families and boys without resident male role models, and likely at similar quantities as today.]][^12] ###### interpersonal relations In social psychology, an interpersonal relation describes a social association, connection, or affiliation between two or more people.[^35] [[In long-term relationships, our brains make trust a habit.]][^36] [[Throughout history, many men (such as Karl Marx) have concluded that women’s inferior social status was due to some intrinsic weakness—rather than the material conditions in which women found themselves.]][^37] [^1]: ‘Kinship’, Wikipedia, last edited 14 December 2025, 19:11 (UTC), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinship. [^2]: ‘Kinship’, Wikipedia, last edited 14 December 2025, 19:11 (UTC), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinship. [^3]: Carrie Jenkins, ‘[[Jenkins, ‘How a Hackneyed Romantic Ideal is Used to Stigmatise Polyamory’, 2017|How a Hackneyed Romantic Ideal is Used to Stigmatise Polyamory]], *Aeon*, 3 February 2017, [https://aeon.co/ideas/how-a-hackneyed-romantic-ideal-is-used-to-stigmatise-polyamory](https://aeon.co/ideas/how-a-hackneyed-romantic-ideal-is-used-to-stigmatise-polyamory). [^4]: Sally Holloway, ‘[[Holloway, ‘Love Tokens’, n.d.|Tokens of History: Love Tokens]]’, Foundling Museum, accessed 4 January 2025, https://foundlingmuseum.org.uk/tokens-of-history/love-tokens/. [^5]: Robert Aldrich, *[[Aldrich, Gay Lives, 2013|Gay Lives]]* (Thames & Hudson, 2013), ‘Introduction’. EPUB. [^6]: Robert Aldrich, *[[Aldrich, Gay Lives, 2013|Gay Lives]]* (Thames & Hudson, 2013), ‘Introduction’. EPUB. [^7]: Milena Popova, ‘[[Popova, ‘Dogfuck Rapeworld’, 2018|“Dogfuck Rapeworld”: Omegaverse Fanfiction as a Critical Tool in Analyzing the Impact of Social Power Structures on Intimate Relationships and Sexual Consent]]’, *Porn Studies*, vol. 5, no. 2 (2018), p. 3, https://doi.org/10.1080/23268743.2017.1394215. [^8]: Milena Popova, ‘[[Popova, ‘Dogfuck Rapeworld’, 2018|“Dogfuck Rapeworld”: Omegaverse Fanfiction as a Critical Tool in Analyzing the Impact of Social Power Structures on Intimate Relationships and Sexual Consent]]’, *Porn Studies*, vol. 5, no. 2 (2018), p. 3, https://doi.org/10.1080/23268743.2017.1394215; Julia C. Bond et al., ‘[[Bond et al., ‘Sexual Self‑Efficacy and Entitlement to Pleasure’, 2010|Sexual Self‑Efficacy and Entitlement to Pleasure: The Association of the Female Sexual Subjectivity Inventory with Sexual Risk Taking and Experience of Orgasm]]’, *Archives of Sexual Behaviour*, vol. 49, no. 3 (2010), p. 1030, <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01563-3>. [^9]: Judith Farquhar, *[[Farquhar, Appetites, 2002|Appetites: Food and Sex in Postsocialist China]]* (Duke University Press, 2002), p. 1; Wolfram Eberhard, *[[Eberhard, Dictionary of Chinese Symbols, 1986|A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought]]* (Routledge, 1986), p. 263. Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofchin00wolf/. [^10]: Deborah S. Davis and Sara L. Friedman, ‘[[Davis and Friedman, ‘Deinstitutionalizing Marriage and Sexuality’, 2014|Deinstitutionalizing Marriage and Sexuality]]’, in *Wives, Husbands, and Lovers: Marriage and Sexuality in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Urban China*, ed. Deborah S. Davis and Sara L. Friedman (Stanford University Press, 2014), p. 17. [^11]: Deborah S. Davis and Sara L. Friedman, ‘[[Davis and Friedman, ‘Deinstitutionalizing Marriage and Sexuality’, 2014|Deinstitutionalizing Marriage and Sexuality]]’, in *Wives, Husbands, and Lovers: Marriage and Sexuality in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Urban China*, ed. Deborah S. Davis and Sara L. Friedman (Stanford University Press, 2014), p. 17. [^12]: Alan F. Dixon, *[[Dixon, Primate Sexuality, 1998|Primate Sexuality: Comparative Studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes, and Human Beings]]* (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 94. [^13]: Julia D. Monk et al., ‘[[Monk et al, ‘An Alternative Hypothesis for the Evolution of Same-Sex Sexual Behaviour in Animals’, 2019|An Alternative Hypothesis for the Evolution of Same-Sex Sexual Behaviour in Animals]]’, *Nature Ecology & Evolution*, vol. 3, no. 12 (2019), p. 1623, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-1019-7. [^14]: Shuwei Wang, ‘[[Wang, ‘Performing Yin-Yang’, 2024|Performing Yin/Yang: Male-Male Relationships in Qing China]]’, *Proceedings of the 2024 10th International Conference on Humanities and Social Science Research (ICHSSR 2024)*, vol. 858 (2024), p. 112, <https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-277-4_14>. [^15]: Natasha McKeever and Luke Brunning, ‘[[McKeever and Brunning, ‘Being Asexual’, 2019|Being Asexual]]’, *Aeon*, 19 November 2019, [https://aeon.co/essays/what-being-asexual-or-aromantic-tells-us-about-sex-and-romance](https://aeon.co/essays/what-being-asexual-or-aromantic-tells-us-about-sex-and-romance). [^16]: @fubroshi \[pseud.], ‘my hot and controversial take of the evening…’, *Twitter*, 9 November 2022 (11:07 am), https://x.com/fubroshi/status/1590133921038991360. [^17]: ‘Mater Semper Certa Est’, Wikipedia, last edited 28 June 2024, 03:25 (UTC), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mater_semper_certa_est. [^18]: ‘Mater Semper Certa Est’, Wikipedia, last edited 28 June 2024, 03:25 (UTC), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mater_semper_certa_est. [^19]: ‘Matrilocal residence’, Wikipedia, last edited 16 January 2025, 05:09 (UTC), <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrilocal_residence>. [^20]: Nicola Davis, ‘[[Davis, ‘Iron Age Men Left Home to Join Wives’ Families, DNA Study Suggests’, 2025|Iron Age Men Left Home to Join Wives’ Families, DNA Study Suggests]]’, *The Guardian* (online), 16 January 2025, <https://www.theguardian.com/science/2025/jan/15/iron-age-men-left-home-join-wives-families-dna-study-reveals>. [^21]: Camilia Nelson, ‘[[Nelson, ‘Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World’, 2023|Friday Essay: Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World – It’s Time to Look Beyond the Patriarchy]]’, *The Conversation*, 24 March 2023, <https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-matrilineal-societies-exist-around-the-world-its-time-to-look-beyond-the-patriarchy-200825>. [^22]: Philip Carr-Gomm, *[[Carr-Gomm, Druid Mysteries, 2002|Druid Mysteries: Ancient Wisdom for the 21st Century]]* (Rider, 2002), chapter 6. EPUB. [^23]: Camilia Nelson, ‘[[Nelson, ‘Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World’, 2023|Friday Essay: Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World – It’s Time to Look Beyond the Patriarchy]]’, *The Conversation*, 24 March 2023, <https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-matrilineal-societies-exist-around-the-world-its-time-to-look-beyond-the-patriarchy-200825>. [^24]: ‘Matrifocal Family’, Wikipedia, last edited 10 February 2025, 04:26 (UTC), <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrifocal_family>. [^25]: ‘Matrifocal Family’, Wikipedia, last edited 10 February 2025, 04:26 (UTC), <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrifocal_family>. [^26]: ‘Matrifocal Family’, Wikipedia, last edited 10 February 2025, 04:26 (UTC), <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrifocal_family>. [^27]: ‘Matrifocal family’, *Wikipedia*, updated 10 February 2025, <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrifocal_family>. [^28]: Camilia Nelson, ‘[[Nelson, ‘Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World’, 2023|Friday Essay: Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World – It’s Time to Look Beyond the Patriarchy]]’, *The Conversation*, 24 March 2023, <https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-matrilineal-societies-exist-around-the-world-its-time-to-look-beyond-the-patriarchy-200825>. [^29]: Judith Hurwich, ‘[[Hurwich, ‘Inheritance Practices in Early Modern Germany’, 1993|Inheritance Practices in Early Modern Germany]]’, *The Journal of Interdisciplinary History*, vol. 23, no. 4 (1993), p. 707, [https://doi.org/10.2307/206280](https://doi.org/10.2307/206280). [^30]: Judith Hurwich, ‘[[Hurwich, ‘Inheritance Practices in Early Modern Germany’, 1993|Inheritance Practices in Early Modern Germany]]’, *The Journal of Interdisciplinary History*, vol. 23, no. 4 (1993), p. 707, [https://doi.org/10.2307/206280](https://doi.org/10.2307/206280). [^31]: ‘Moiety System’, Anthroholic, last updated 13 July 2023, [https://anthroholic.com/moiety-system](https://anthroholic.com/moiety-system). [^32]: ‘[[The Economist, ‘The Flight from Marriage’, 2011|The Flight from Marriage]]’, *The Economist* (online), 20 August 2011, https://archive.md/20211021030703/https://www.economist.com/briefing/2011/08/20/the-flight-from-marriage. [^33]: ‘Moiety System’, *Encylopedia Britannica* (Online), last updated 19 June 2016, https://www.britannica.com/topic/moiety-system. [^34]: ‘Moiety System’, Anthroholic, 13 July 2023, https://anthroholic.com/moiety-system. [^35]: ‘Interpersonal relationship’, Wikipedia, 5 December 2025, 22:24 (UTC), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship. [^36]: Marcia Malory, ‘[[Malory, ‘In Longterm Relationships, the Brain Makes Trust a Habit’, 2013|In Longterm Relationships, the Brain Makes Trust a Habit]]’, *Medical Xpress*, 3 September 2013, [https://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-09-longterm-relationships-brain-habit.html](https://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-09-longterm-relationships-brain-habit.html). [^37]: Camilia Nelson, ‘[[Nelson, ‘Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World’, 2023|Friday Essay: Matrilineal Societies Exist Around the World – It’s Time to Look Beyond the Patriarchy]]’, *The Conversation*, 24 March 2023, <https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-matrilineal-societies-exist-around-the-world-its-time-to-look-beyond-the-patriarchy-200825>.