\[ **BT: [[life#chemosignals|chemosignals]]** ] --- # pheromones [[Pheromones (a defined molecule or combination of molecules) are species-wide chemical signals which elicit innate responses (which can be conditional on context).]][^1] ![[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones’, 2017#^ce493a]] [^2] **Pheromones must be consistent.** [['Pheromones are the same in all sexually mature males, for example, of a species. It is the consistency in these molecules between individual males in a population which allows them to be identified as a pheromone.'|'Pheromones are the same in all sexually mature males, for example, of a species. It is the consistency in these molecules between individual males in a population which allows them to be identified as a pheromone.']][^3] [['Pheromones are the same in all sexually mature males, for example, of a species. It is the consistency in these molecules between individual males in a population which allows them to be identified as a pheromone.'|'Some males may produce more of the pheromone and thus may be more attractive to females: well-fed male voles with high testosterone levels produce more pheromone.’]][^4] ## history of studying pheromones [[The term ‘pheromone’ was coined in 1959 by Peter Karlson and Martin Luscher of the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry in Munich, Germany.]][^5] [[Karlson and Luscher argued that ‘with the cloud of molecules produced by animals’, ‘some were more special than others’.]][^6] *Pheromone* comes from Ancient Greek φέρω (phérō) ‘to bear’ + hormone.[^7] [[Historically, the challenge with studying pheromones was that the individual animal releases vanishingly small quantities.]][^8] [[Adolf Butenandt and his team twenty years to publish the first identification of a (female silk moth) pheromone in 1959.]][^9] [[Doty (2010) states the concept of pheromones is ‘fallacious’ when applied to mammals.]][^10] However, it is today understood that [[Pheromones are ‘used by species all across the animal kingdom, in every habitat, and in a wide range of biological contexts’.|pheromones are ‘used by species all across the animal kingdom, in every habitat, and in a wide range of biological contexts’.]][^11] [[Among primates, pheromones are of variable importance when it comes to social communication.]][^12] --- ## human pheromones [[Since humans are mammals (and chemical communication is important in other mammal species), humans probably do use chemical cues and have pheromones. However, we are yet to reliably demonstrate this.]][^13] [[It is possible that a lack of selection pressure has enabled humans to lose their responses to human pheromones over time.]][^14] [[Many of the things that people posit could be carriers of human pheromones are, in fact, examples of individual odours—like body odour scent profiles—rather pheromone molecules identical in, for example, all males or all females.]][^15] --- ## signature mixes (recognising others) [[Signature mixes are variable subsets of molecules that make up an animal’s chemical (scent) profile and can be learned by other animals, allowing the identification of individuals or colonies.]][^16] [[Prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) are monogamous; they use signature mixes to recognise their partner by scent.]][^17] [[A mother sheep uses signature mixes (individual odours) to distinguish her lamb from others.]][^18] ### individual human scent signature [[The ‘human scent signature’ is the group of chemical compounds that make up a human scent trace; they are as unique as fingerprints, and enable forensic identification by sniffer dogs.]][^19] [[An individual human's scent signature is made up of thousands of chemical compounds.]][^20] [[The human scent signature can be broken down into three categories—primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary scents are stable; secondary vary depending on factors; tertiary are those scents are environmental.]][^21] [[Something about the female human scent signature is easier for sniffer dogs to identify; it is unknown whether this is because of a difference in compound variability or because dogs have a preference.]][^22] [[A single human signature scent contains more than one group of compounds (i.e. several signatures exist within one individual scent).]][^23] --- ## actions **Important note:** First up: many pheromones ‘[[2025-0321. 'For many hours after exposure to alarm pheromone, honeybees are more likely to attack intruders.'|have both immediate ‘releaser’ effects and longer lasting ‘primer’ effects.]]’[^24] For example: - [[2025-0321. 'For many hours after exposure to alarm pheromone, honeybees are more likely to attack intruders.'|'For many hours after exposure to alarm pheromone, honeybees are more likely to attack intruders.']][^25] (*See:* [[Honeybee#Pheromones|Honeybee pheromones]]) + [[2025-0321. '... male Agrotis moths do not respond to female sex pheromone for up to 24 hours after mating.'|'... male Agrotis moths do not respond to female sex pheromone for up to 24 hours after mating.']][^26] (*See*: [[Agrotis moth#Pheromones|Agrotis moth pheromones]]) Furthermore, some can signal and prime, e.g. - The [[Rats#Pheromones|GnRH molecule functions as a neurotransmitter in rats to elicit lordosis behaviour]]. Perhaps most importantly, [[Although pheromones 'elicit stereotyped behaviour' or 'physiological responses', these are 'modulated by context, time of day, and many other factors'.|although pheromones 'elicit stereotyped behaviour' or 'physiological responses', these are 'modulated by context, time of day, and many other factors'.]][^27] Factors can include [[Although pheromones 'elicit stereotyped behaviour' or 'physiological responses', these are 'modulated by context, time of day, and many other factors'.|’the receivers genetics, age, sex, hormonal state, dominance status, and recent experience.’]][^28] They do not, y’know, provide a superpower-level of control, etc. For example: - [[2025-0321. 'Male hamsters only respond to female pheromone if they are well fed, giving them sufficiently high blood testosterone levels in their hypothalamus.'|'Male hamsters only respond to female pheromone if they are well fed, giving them sufficiently high blood testosterone levels in their hypothalamus.']][^29] (see also: [[hamsters]]) [[The rabbit mammary pheromone, 2-methylbut-2-enal, triggers rabbit pups to suckle.]][^30] [[Honey bee alarm pheromones prompt immediate ‘releaser’ effects AND longer lasting ‘primer’ effects.]][^31] - see also: [[insects#Apis mellifera (honey bee)|honey bee]] [[Garter snake mating often occurs in large balls of males attempting to copulate with a single focal snake; sometimes this is a receptive female, sometimes it is a male snake releasing similar receptive pheromones.]][^32] [[Although pheromones 'elicit stereotyped behaviour' or 'physiological responses', these are 'modulated by context, time of day, and many other factors'.]][^33] [[There are circumstances in which an organism's brain response to certain pheromones is blocked. For example, after mating.]][^34] [[Male hamsters will only respond to female pheromones if they are well fed (which gives them sufficiently high blood testosterone levels in their hypothalamus).]][^35] [[Male agrotis moths remain unresponsive to female sex pheromones for up to 24 hours following mating.]][^36] - see also: [[insects#Agrotis (Genus)|Agrotis moth]] [[In rats, it has been suggested that a fraction of the GnRH molecule functions directly as a neurotransmitter in rats to elicit a behavioural effect (i.e. lordosis). Activating a response like this is characteristic of a signal pheromone.]][^37] ### three types #### (1) behavioural response: ‘releaser’ pheromones > Releaser pheromones are pheromones that cause an alteration in the behavior of the recipient.[^38] Basically, they can [[2025-0321. 'To some, releaser and signaler pheromones have been equated, although it may make more sense to speak of them as independent.'|’elicit a certain response’]].[^39] Examples: - [[The rabbit mammary pheromone, 2-methylbut-2-enal, triggers the ‘suckling of a rabbit pup’.|The rabbit mammary pheromone, 2-methylbut-2-enal, triggers the ‘suckling of a rabbit pup’.]][^40] + mate-attraction Generally, this type of pheromone elicits a rapid response, but isn’t long lasting.[^41] #### (2) physiological effects: ‘primer’ pheromones > Primer pheromones trigger a change of developmental events.[^42] [[2025-0321. 'Excellent examples of primer pheromones have been described for both male and female nonhuman animals. The effects are numerous.'|'Excellent examples of primer pheromones have been described for both male and female nonhuman animals. The effects are numerous.']].[^43] [[2025-0321. 'Excellent examples of primer pheromones have been described for both male and female nonhuman animals. The effects are numerous.'|’Beginning early in life, exposure to chemical signals from adults of the opposite sex typically will advance the onset of puberty, while exposure to analogous signals from the same sex will retard the onset of puberty (Bronson and Macmillan, 1983).’]][^44] [[2025-0321. 'Excellent examples of primer pheromones have been described for both male and female nonhuman animals. The effects are numerous.'|’ In many species, males that are exposed to chemical cues from novel adult females will typically exhibit a spike in luteinizing hormone (Maruniak and Bronson,1976), followed by a surge in testosterone (Wysocki et al.,1983).’]][^45] [[2025-0321. 'Excellent examples of primer pheromones have been described for both male and female nonhuman animals. The effects are numerous.'|’In some species, pregnant females exposed to pheromones of adult males that did not impregnate the females will terminate the pregnancy by reabsorbing the fetuses (Bruce, 1959).’]][^46] #### (3) short-term changes: ‘signal’ pheromones > Signal pheromones cause short-term changes, such as the neurotransmitter release that activates a response.[^47] Interestingly, Charles J. Wysocki states [[2025-0321. 'To some, releaser and signaler pheromones have been equated, although it may make more sense to speak of them as independent.'|’signaler pheromones may only provide information’]],[^48] e.g. [[2025-0321. 'To some, releaser and signaler pheromones have been equated, although it may make more sense to speak of them as independent.'|’the type of genes that one possesses … one’s dominance status within a social hierarchy … the type of food that was most recently consumed … or when and where to find food.’]][^49] ##### debate re. types [[2025-0321. 'To some, releaser and signaler pheromones have been equated, although it may make more sense to speak of them as independent.'|'To some, releaser and signaler pheromones have been equated (Bronson, 1971), although it may make more sense to speak of them as independent.']][^50] ### eavesdropping and deception > Broadcast signals like pheromones can be ‘eavesdropped’.[^51] - Predators can track prey pheromones.[^52] + Plants can use mimicry of pollinator pheromones to lure in pollinators.[^53] --- ## pheromone secretion [[Pheromones are typically secreted by specialised glands or tissue.]][^54] ### mammal scent-gland locations #### primates ##### tamarins Anogenital, suprapubic, sternal.[^55] --- ## end notes [^1]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones and Signature Mixtures’, 2010|Pheromones and Signature Mixtures: Defining Species-Wide Signals and Variable Cues for Identity in Both Invertebrates and Vertebrates]]’, *Journal of Comparative Physiology A*, vol. 196 (August 2010), p. 685, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-010-0564-y. [^2]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones’, 2017|Pheromones]]’, *Current Biology*, vol. 27 (August 2017), R739, [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039). [^3]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt. ‘Pheromones’, 2017|Pheromones]]’, *Current Biology*, vol. 27, issue 15 (7 August 2017), p. R740. [^4]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt. ‘Pheromones’, 2017|Pheromones]]’, *Current Biology*, vol. 27, issue 15 (7 August 2017), p. R740. [^5]: Alex Riley, ‘[[Riley, ‘Pheromones Are Probably Not Why People Find You Attractive’, 2016|Pheromones Are Probably Not Why People Find You Attractive]]’, Future, *BBC*, 9 May 2016, [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20160509-the-tantalising-truth-about-sex-pheromones](https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20160509-the-tantalising-truth-about-sex-pheromones). [^6]: Alex Riley, ‘[[Riley, ‘Pheromones Are Probably Not Why People Find You Attractive’, 2016|Pheromones Are Probably Not Why People Find You Attractive]]’, Future, *BBC*, 9 May 2016, [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20160509-the-tantalising-truth-about-sex-pheromones](https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20160509-the-tantalising-truth-about-sex-pheromones). [^7]: ‘Pheromone’, Wikipedia, last edited 8 November 2024, 08:53 (UTC), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheromone. [^8]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones’, 2017|Pheromones]]’, *Current Biology*, vol. 27 (August 2017), R739, [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039). [^9]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones’, 2017|Pheromones]]’, *Current Biology*, vol. 27 (August 2017), R739, [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039). [^10]: Richard L. Doty, *[[Doty, Great Pheromone Myth, 2010|The Great Pheromone Myth]]* (Hopkins University Press, 2010), p. 2. Internet Archive, https://archive.org/embed/greatpheromonemy0000doty. [^11]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones’, 2017|Pheromones]]’, *Current Biology*, vol. 27, no. 15 (2017), R739, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039. [^12]: Charles J. Wysocki, ‘[[Wysocki and Preti, ‘Facts, fallacies, fears, and frustrations with human pheromones’, 2004|Facts, Fallacies, Fears, and Frustrations with Human Pheromones]]’, *The Anatomical Record*, vol. 281A, no. 1 (2004), p. 1201, https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.a.20125. [^13]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Reproducible Research into Human Chemical Communication by Cues and Pheromones’, 2020|Reproducible Research into Human Chemical Communication by Cues and Pheromones: Learning from Psychology’s Renaissance]]’, *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences*, vol. 375, no. 1800 (2020), p. 1, [https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0262](https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0262); Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘The Search for Human Pheromones’, 2015|The Search for Human Pheromones: The Lost Decades and the Necessity of Returning to First Principles]]’, *Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences*, vol. 282 (April 2015), p. 2, [http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2994](http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2994). [^14]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘The Search for Human Pheromones’, 2015|The Search for Human Pheromones: The Lost Decades and the Necessity of Returning to First Principles]]’, *Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences*, vol. 282 (April 2015), p. 2, [http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2994](http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2994). [^15]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘The Search for Human Pheromones’, 2015|The Search for Human Pheromones: The Lost Decades and the Necessity of Returning to First Principles]]’, *Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences*, vol. 282 (April 2015), p. 3, [http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2994](http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2994). [^16]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones and Signature Mixtures’, 2010|Pheromones and Signature Mixtures: Defining Species-Wide Signals and Variable Cues for Identity in Both Invertebrates and Vertebrates]]’, *Journal of Comparative Physiology A*, vol. 196 (August 2010), p. 685, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-010-0564-y. [^17]: Tristram D. Wyatt, ‘[[Wyatt, ‘Pheromones’, 2017|Pheromones]]’, *Current Biology*, vo. 27, no. 15 (2017), R740, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.039. [^18]: Tristram D. 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[^22]: Petr Doležal et al., ‘[[Doležal et al. ‘Multiplicity of Human Scent Signature’, 2019|Multiplicity of Human Scent Signature]]’, *Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences*, vol. 9, no. 1 (2019), p. 2, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-019-0112-z; Tadeusz Jezierski, ‘[[Jezierski et al., ‘Do Trained Dogs Discriminate Individual Body Odors of Women Better than Those of Men’, 2012|Do Trained Dogs Discriminate Individual Body Odors of Women Better than Those of Men?]]’, *Journal of Forensic Sciences*, vol. 57, no. 3 (2012), abstract, [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.02029.x](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.02029.x). [^23]: Petr Doležal et al., ‘[[Doležal et al. ‘Multiplicity of Human Scent Signature’, 2019|Multiplicity of Human Scent Signature]]’, *Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences*, vol. 9, no. 1 (2019), p. 6, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-019-0112-z. [^24]: Tristram D. 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