# Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011 > [!cite] > Staub, Peter O., Matthias S. Geck, and Caroline S. Weckerle. ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China: A Case Study among the Bai in Shaxi’. *Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine*, vol. 7, no. 43 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-7-43. 🔓OPEN ACCESS: [[Staub et al. - 2011 - Incense and ritual plant use in Southwest China A case study among the Bai in Shaxi.pdf]] > [!abstract] > **Background:** Ritual and religious uses of plant-derived smoke are widespread throughout the world. Our research focuses on Southwest China, where the use of incense is very common. This study aims to document and analyze contemporary ritual plant uses by the Bai people of Shaxi Township (Jianchuan County, Dali Prefecture, Yunnan Province), including their related ethnobotanical knowledge, practices, and beliefs. > > **Methods:** The present study builds on previous ethnobotanical research in Shaxi, which started in 2005. Interviews focusing on ritual plant use and associated beliefs were carried out with a total of 44 Bai informants in September 2009 and May and June 2010. The results are supplemented with information on the local religion collected from June to December 2010. All documented species were vouchered, and are deposited at the herbaria of Kunming Institute of Botany (KUN) and the University of Zurich (Z/ZT). > > **Results:** A total of 17 species have been documented for use in incense. They are always used in mixtures and are either burned in the form of powders in a censer or as joss sticks. The smell of the smoke is the main criterion for the selection of the incense plants. Incense is burned for communication with spiritual entities at graves, temples, and cooking stoves, as well as for personal well-being. Cupressus funebris Endl., Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall., and Ligustrum sempervirens (Franch.) Lingelsh. are the most important incense species. Others serve as substitutes or are used to stretch incense powders. > > **Conclusions:** In Shaxi the use of incense mixtures at the household and community level is regularly practiced for communication with ancestors, ghosts, and deities and in some cases to strengthen self awareness. Some of the documented species are widely used in central Asia and Europe, hinting at the well documented knowledge exchange that occurred in Shaxi, which was a major hub along the influential Southern Silk Road. --- ‘The term “China’s Three Great Religions” is commonly used to refer collectively to Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism and many temples throughout China are dedicated to all three religions.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 2)]] ^0da3f3 ‘***Dongzhijie* (At the day of winter solstice)** The Winter Solstice Festival is celebrated with the immediate family to commemorate the shortest day of the year. The only fixed ritual for this festival is to make *tangyuan* (sweet dumplings). Usually, the whole family helps to prepare the filling and then forms the dumplings out of dough made of glutinous rice.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 15–16)]] ^377780 ‘Ancestor worship is also practiced throughout rural China and is loosely associated with both Daoism and Confucianism.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 2)]] ^1fce38 ‘In China there is a long history of the use of plant-derived smoke for hygiene, insecticidal, religious, warfare, and timekeeping reasons \[15:134-154], and the combustion of incense during ceremonies and rituals has traditionally been an important aspect of Buddhist, Confucian, and Daoist religious practices.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 1–2)]] ‘In the early 20th century, ancestor worship was practiced daily by the Bai people of Dali \[28:94] and the importance of these practices in Shaxi are evidenced by the fact that in almost every household there is a shrine reserved for the worship of family ancestors.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 2)]] ‘*Tudigong* (Earth God) and his wife *Tudipo*, for example, are worshipped for matters related to agriculture, *Shanshen* (Mountain God) is worshipped before venturing into the hills, and *Longwang* (Dragon King) is worshipped for water related issues. Shrines dedicated to these local gods are omnipresent in the valley bottom as well as in agricultural fields in the lower hills, bridges, in the vicinity of water sources, and at the edges of villages.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 2–3)]] ‘Additional deities are worshipped at home, such as the *Zaojun* (Kitchen God) and the *Menshen* (Gate Gods).’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 3)]] ‘***Chunjie* (01.01)** The Spring Festival or Chinese New Year marks the beginning of the new lunar year. For many people in Shaxi it is the most important festival throughout the year. Family members working outside the valley usually return home for the festivities. The celebrations last for one week, feasts are common and firecrackers are let off throughout the whole week. On the New Year’s Dinner, almost all families eat fish, as the Chinese word for fish (*yu*) is pronounced the same way as the word for surplus. Paper-cuts in red displaying the character for good fortune (*fu*) are hung on doors and windows. Usually, at least one member of each family goes worshipping at the Chenghuang temple, to ask for the prosperous development of the family in the new year.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 14–15)]] ‘***Duanwujie* (05.05)** The Dragonboat Festival is celebrated in Shaxi in memory of a legend, in which two beautiful girls are turned into a blue and a white snake. On this day, the evil spirits symbolized by these snakes come to haunt the living. In order to protect the family from the negative influence poplar (*Populus* sp.) twigs are stuck in the corners of the home and close to openings (doors, windows, crevices etc.) in the walls of the courtyard. These are supposed to hinder the ghosts from entering. On this day *Zongzi* (glutinous rice stuffed with various fillings and wrapped in bamboo leaves) are prepared and eaten. Further, a special soup is prepared of local herbs and drunken as a tonic by the festival participants.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 15)]] ‘***Guijie* (14.07.)** The Ghost Festival actually marks the end of a two weeks period, during which the ghosts - both good and evil - were free to roam the world of the living. On the first of the lunar July, all souls are released from the underworld. Before this day, virtually all families stick branches of *Prinsepia utilis* Royle close to all openings of the courtyard to keep the ghosts outside of the home. As young children are reportedly particularly susceptible to the ghosts’ influences, they are not allowed to leave the house after nightfall during the next two weeks. On the sunset of the 14th, all ghosts are called back to the underworld. In order to provide for the needs of the ancestors’ souls, all families burn incense and special paper money and paper clothes. There are different clothes for deceased children, women and men. All of them have the respective ancestors name inscribed, which is read out loud by the head of the family when put into the flames. Further, a large meal is prepared and parts of each dish are also put into the flames to let the ancestors participate in the feast.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 15)]] ‘***Zhongqiujie* (15.08.)** The Mid Autumn Festival is celebrated with a large feast where all family members should be present. Afterwards, a table with apples, chestnuts, pears, walnuts, water chestnuts (*Eleocharis dulcis* Trin. ex Henschel.), other snacks and most importantly *yuebing* (mooncakes) is placed outside and the food is eaten while marveling at the full moon.’ [[Staub et al., ‘Incense and Ritual Plant Use in Southwest China’, 2011|(Staub et al. 2011, 15)]]